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Timber can be modified by a variety of methods to enhance properties and change appearance. Modification using temperature is relatively simple and extensive trials using Welsh timber have been undertaken, but so far the process has not been developed commercially in Wales.

Why can’t I get thermally-treated Welsh timber?

This was a question raised by one of the delegates at WoodBUILD 2019 where we were discussing how Wales could become a high-value forest nation. Ceri Loxton decided to find out more and talked to Dr Morwenna Spear, a wood scientist at the BioComposites Centre at Bangor University. Morwenna has been involved with a number of research projects over the years looking at thermal modification systems for Welsh timber.

Thermal treatment: what it is?

Thermal modification, or thermal treatment, of timber is a form of timber modification for the purposes of changing one or more properties of the timber compared to the untreated starting product. It should not be confused with the term heat treatment, that refers to a sterilisation process for pallets and packaging timbers (done at 60°C). Thermal modification refers to timber that has been heated to high temperatures so that a specified core temperature has been reached for a minimum period of time, allowing changes to occur within the chemical components of the wood. It also differs from kiln drying where heat has been used to dry the timber to a specified moisture content, usually approximately 18% for external use and 10 to 12% for internal uses.

During thermal modification the timber is exposed to elevated temperatures (typically 180 to 240°C) for a sufficient period of time to alter the chemical composition of the hemicellulose within the wood cell wall. This results in a colour change, a reduction in density, an increase in dimensional stability and may also result in elevated durability or reduced strength depending on conditions (Esteves and Pereira 2009). The extent of decay resistance is largely governed by the duration and the temperature achieved during this treatment stage. Some systems treat at higher temperatures, to increase durability, for example.
Thermal treatment is an industrial process which improves some wood properties, such as dimensional stability and durability. There has been a steady increase in heat-treatment companies and process across Europe, particularly in the last 15- 20 years. This has been driven by a number of factors, including wanting to add value to European timbers, reduced availability of some tropical species, and development of alternative methods to chemical modification and preservative treatments. Brands include Thermowood, Lunawood
Dylan Jones, who works for the Cwm a Mynydd RDP project through Caerphilly Council, and who previously worked on thermal treatment as part of a wider value adding project for Coed Cymru, explained more because “the process adds no additional chemicals to the timber end of life options for reuse, recycling or disposal of thermally treated timber could become a key advantage over other treatment methods in the future.” This is because Governments are starting to realise that we must look seriously at how products can be reused, recycled or disposed of at the end of their life.

Heat treated timber in the UK

Both softwoods and hardwoods can be thermally modified and a number of different, patented systems are available. Most thermally modified timber is imported into the UK and primarily is used to supply the timber cladding and decking market.
In the UK, Vastern Timber have a system for thermally modifying British hardwoods and the resulting product is known as Brimstone timber. While some of the timber they treat may have originated from Welsh forests, the treatment takes place outside the UK. At the moment no Welsh or UK sawmills or processors are producing thermally treated timber, although potential has been demonstrated by Coed Cymru, Coed Mon and Bangor University.

Uses of heat treated timber

Heat treated wood can be used outdoors for: cladding, decks, garden furniture, doors and windows; indoors it can be used for kitchen furniture, parquet, decorative panels and the interior of saunas.

Research into heat treatment of Welsh timber

Over a number of years Coed Cymru and the BioComposites Centre (in association with a number of different project partners) have undertaken research on the heat treatment of Welsh species including larch and western hemlock, as well as various hardwoods.
Conventional, commercial heat treatment processes such as Thermowood and Brimstone require relatively large set ups and high operating temperatures for extended periods of time for the primary purpose of improving dimensional stability. But a CIRP (Collaborative Industrial Research Programme) project involving Coed Cymru, the BioComposites Centre and a number of other partners focused upon small scale treatment units. One output was improving the joinery properties of Welsh larch through a mild treatment.

The system was devised primarily to heat the timber to achieve a mild or moderate thermal modification, therefore the timber experiences temperatures that are lower than for the commercial thermal treatments. The main characteristic of this system is its applicability for small companies with limits on the operating hours, either due to number of employees, or to insurance or practical time limits on operation at the premises. The conventional continuous multi-day processes for heat treatment are not suited to smaller Welsh sawmills and timber processors. So a system using separate working days to achieve a drying stage, treatment stage and a conditioning stage was developed.

Mild to moderate heat treatment (maximum 160°C for 5 hours) rather than high temperature conventional heat treatment was explored because (1) high temperature heat treatment had already been explored and commercial ‘off the shelf’ solutions are available, (2) as a possible treatment method for larch to improve workability and machinability, (3) as a practical method for small (single shift) operations.
The mild thermal modification treatments were carried out in three stages (1) drying (2) treatment and (3) reconditioning. Stages were chosen so that they could be carried out in a single working day to allow small businesses to operate kilns on a single shift work pattern.  A definition of the treatment phase (set temperature of the kiln) is provided in “Physical properties of UK grown larch subjected to mild and moderate thermal modification processes” here.
The trials successfully showed that mild and moderately heat-treated larch has improved machining properties, the timber planed well, with relatively few chip bruising marks and post-machining raised grain was considerably reduced, as was fuzzy grain where grain deviated around knots etc.

Warnings and advice

Mild to moderate heat treatment of larch (made by Coed Mon and Menter Mon) proved very successful in this project. Cladding produced during the trial and installed at Halen Mon on Anglesey is still performing well after four years of service. “However as a method for a small enterprise it would require careful consideration, particularly if you are thinking about it as a sole operator” says Dr Morwenna Spear principle scientist/project manager on the project, “Loading and unloading the kiln is hard manual work if being done single-handed, so a small team may be needed. You also need to think about supervision of the kiln during its operation. It could work if co-located with a number of smaller companies working together, to share responsibilities and develop a business model.”

Is mild to moderate heat treatment commercially viable?

“If it can get more of our homegrown timber into high value cladding and joinery applications (which then act as carbon stores) then yes the sale price may justify investment of money and energy.” It’s also a relatively environmentally benign process, so an added benefit may occur when that carbon store is acknowledged. It is a chemical free process, so the environmental impacts are lower than some other treatment processes.

Why haven’t we seen more Welsh larch thermally treated in this way since the project ended?

“Lack of momentum. If there had been a follow-on project after completing the Halen Mon cladding, then the consortium may have been able to keep the ball rolling and produce more product.” Explained Dr Spear. “It’s all been developed and demonstrated, the next step is getting the timber on the market. We had timber merchants showing an interest due to the distinctive colour and local story. Scale up of production needs a secure market, and a market needs a ready supply. It can be a chicken and egg thing, where someone needs to take the next step.”  “Certainly, more demonstration projects would help and a clear understanding of where demand would come from and how large it could be”.

Should it be pushed further?

Morwenna believes that the process has potential and the feedback from joinery companies was good. The potential for use as cladding was clearly demonstrated during the project. Cladding could be a substantial market, even though it goes in and out of fashion and particularly design constraints (particularly for social housing), related to Secured by Design etc., cladding brings benefits in a climate emergency.
Dylan Jones, RDP project officer at Caerphilly County Council, who worked on the same project with Dr Spear agrees, “I believe the time is right to get people back into a room together and discuss what could be done”. Mr Jones went on to say that a dedicated project with staff, recourses and funding would have the potential to take the previously good work done on thermal treatment on Welsh timber forward and make products available for commercial use. The potential is there to add considerable value to what is often underutilised timber stock and add a boost to Welsh forestry and manufacturing industries.

Recommendations for next steps

“If a business case could be made” says Morwenna “then the expertise gained in the project is still available and could still be accessed.” So, if there is a reader out there who is thinking about heat treating Welsh timbers please get in touch with Dr Morwenna Spear at The BioComposites Centre, Bangor University to find out more.

Further sources of Information

Building success in modified wood. Link to summary of BioComposites Centre & Coed Cymru project with photos of modified larch cladding on a building. Link to document here.
Esteves, Bruno & Pereira, Helena. (2009). Wood modification by heat treatment: A review.  BioResources. 4. 370-404. Link here.
Determination of verifiable programmes for heat treatment of Welsh larch . Link to report here.

The construction sector is a major contributor of carbon emissions. Pressure to respond to the climate emergency means that decarbonisation is a priority for everyone who has a stake in construction. But where to start?

By James Moxey, Woodknowledge Wales, 6 May 2020 

Organisations considering a decarbonisation strategy that aims for low carbon or even net-zero carbon buildings are well advised to focus their attention in three key areas: Embodied Carbon, Operational Carbon and Offsetting. This article aims to explain what this entails.

Embodied carbon – the material question

Firstly, this means considering the carbon emissions associated with construction materials, e.g. timber, steel, concrete, brick, plastic. This is known as embodied carbon.

The embodied carbon refers to emissions that are occurring before a building is occupied as well as such associated with the demolition of the building.
Carbon emissions from the extraction, manufacture and transport of construction materials and components are known as up-front carbon. Carbon emissions occurring after demolition are known as end-of-life carbon.
Construction materials vary widely in their carbon emissions and energy use. Concrete, for example, is associated with high levels of embodied carbon globally, due to the very large volumes used. Research suggests that it is responsible for 8% of global emissions. Timber on the other hand, harvested from sustainably managed forests, captures and stores carbon from the atmosphere (so called biogenic carbon) when used in buildings. This reduces the impacts of climate change. Its manufacture also emits very low levels of carbon and at the end of life, timber can be re-used, recycled or used for energy recovery. At this stage, the biogenic carbon will be transferred to the next product system or emitted resulting in a biogenic carbon balance.
There are various methods to accurately evaluate the embodied carbon of individual construction materials. Woodknowledge Wales will soon publish industry guidance on this to help organisations implement a low carbon or zero carbon strategy. Stay tuned!

Operational Carbon – tackling lifetime energy use

Once you’ve solved the material aspect of your decarbonisation strategy, you will need to take a closer look at emissions deriving from the use of your building.
Hence a second key activity is to design and build in a way that means less operational energy is used during a building’s lifetime. Operational energy comprises energy from any source, whether in the form of electricity, gas or oil, which is used to heat a building during colder periods, to cool it during hotter periods, or to heat water. Due to the use of fossil fuels such as gas, this energy is associated with carbon emissions. These emissions are known as operational carbon.
Operational energy consumption can be reduced if careful consideration is given to both the design of the fabric of a building (known as fabric first approach) and the shape, layout and orientation of the building itself. This is part of a suite of overall measures that include achieving thermal performance; control of air tightness; air quality for comfort and well being; and acoustics.
Micro-renewable technology (such as solar panels) has a part to play in providing energy needs for UK housing. However, its use should be considered in the wider context of a national grid that is itself decarbonising.

Offsetting – completing the final mile

Once both the embodied and operational carbon have been considered, a third stage will help move towards the desired goal of a true zero carbon building. Even the most sustainable buildings are likely to emit some carbon at some point over their life cycle. Offsetting, via a recognised framework, enables any remaining emissions to be compensated for by, for example capturing carbon elsewhere e.g. through tree planting. The net emissions of our new buildings are therefore balanced with compensatory planting – an exciting holistic prospect for environmental development.

Carbon assessment and RIBA stages of work

These three activities considered at the design stages (e.g. RIBA Stages 0-4) can underpin a more formal Whole Life Carbon Assessment – a very useful tool that allows the best sustainable building options to be considered. It will also provide the objective evidence needed to demonstrate the environmental credentials of a development e.g. by benchmarking against the RIBA 2030.
Furthermore, building performance testing carried out at RIBA stage 7 can take this work a stage further by gathering operational performance data within a building once constructed. This allows clients and tenants to better understand how their buildings perform in reality.

Case Study

Read our case study here on a Clwyd Alyn Housing Project delivered by Williams Homes Ltd at Llanbedr. This is a 36 unit housing development using home-grown Welsh timber which surpasses RIBA 2020 Climate challenge targets for embodied carbon.

Probably the most intensely debated questions at our 2019 BIG Debate during WoodBUILD circled around forestry and land use, and how to move the agenda for a high value forest nation forward in the current system. As part of our series of follow-up interviews on the Big Debate, we invited Jon Travis, Welsh Government; Dominic Driver, Head of Land Stewardship at NRW; and Anthony Geddes, Confor National Manager for Wales to comment on developments in the activities Welsh Government committed to at WoodBUILD 2019.

A National Forest for Wales. What role?

“This is an important journey. It is important to support the first minister in developing the National Forest and I am personally committed to the challenge.”, encouraged Liz Lyon, head of forestry resources policy at Welsh Government, to the captive audience on the question of Wales becoming a high-value Forest Nation. What role does the National Forest play in achieving this vision in your view?

“The Forest Nation is an interesting construct. In Wales at least by land use we are a nation of farmers. Upland, lowland, dairy, meat and arable, the question is why doesn’t that also include trees?” asks Anthony Geddes and suggests the aim to be clearly defined: “What do we mean by a forest nation? 38% tree cover as with the rest of Europe, a nation with a highly productive and efficient forest industry or a nation that engages with and socially embraces its forestry resource?”
Anthony Geddes suggests that the National Forest may help us answer those two questions at least to some extent: “It is clear that the current budget and in fact the design of the National Forest Program is not going to deliver an additional 50,000 ha of new forestry but it may prove to be the base for trialling new delivery methods to encourage the uptake of tree planting on farms and encourage the public to become more engaged.”
Jon Travis clarifies the objective of the programme: “The National Forest will improve the condition and connectivity of our ancient woodlands and accelerate the rate of tree planting in Wales. It will not be simply one area of woodland, but span the full length of Wales, with woodland of different types and sizes, connected over time, to create a genuinely national resource.” The project mainly centres around the creation of public assets: “Our focus will be on areas of well-managed, publicly accessible woodlands. We believe this can unlock environmental and economic benefits for the people of Wales and work towards safe-guarding our woodlands and natural heritage as a public asset for future generations and visitors to Wales to enjoy.”
Public engagement is at the heart of the delivery of the National Forest according to Jon Travis: “Earlier this month, Welsh Government ministers launched the start of our engagement period of the National Forest programme. We want to work with farmers, foresters, voluntary organisations, councils, environmental experts and local communities to help us deliver a National Forest which benefits the whole of Wales.”
As with most projects, Covid-19 is impacting on the original schedule. Welsh Government are currently considering how the coronavirus outbreak will affect plans over the next year.

Land use policy and woodland creation

During the BIG Debate, land use policy and woodland creation were particularly discussed in the context of the second round of the Brexit and our Land’ consultation which was about to launch in July 2019. What does the situation look like today and have you seen any changes in policy focus?
“Last summer the Sustainable Farming and our Land (SFaoL) consultation set out proposals designed to address our key challenges of supporting the ongoing sustainable production of food, combating the climate emergency and reversing the loss of biodiversity.” says Jon Travis “The proposals have been drafted within the context of the Wellbeing of Future Generations Act and the Environment (Wales) Act.”
He is positive about the results: “Opportunities for management of existing farm woodland, and opportunities for new planting are throughout the SFaoL proposals. There are opportunities to use trees and agroforestry as part of the toolkit to improve water and air quality, to provide livestock shelter and biosecurity barriers and stabilise soils on slopes, as well as providing habitat and carbon sequestration.”
“We cannot delink delivering improved soil, air and water quality, stronger ecological and biodiversity networks from tree planting. There is an inevitable increase of woodland cover, the questions simply remain what, where and to what end.” confirms Anthony Geddes.
Change is coming. “Fundamentally, we want to see new and existing farm woodlands as an integrated element of the farm business where their environmental and commercial benefits are fully utilised.” says Jon Travis. “The SFaoL consultation responses are still being considered, so it is too soon to comment on future decisions or plans to transition from current to new arrangements. We are also considering how Sustainable Farming Scheme complements the National Forest programme to increase the benefits from Welsh woodlands.”
From an industry perspective, Anthony Geddes comments: “The largest change in policy focus I’m aware of is an understanding that any new scheme needs to be developed through good quality co-design and not through a desk based, one size fits all approach.”
As an example he quotes the Glastir Woodland Creation (GWC) program: “There has already been a substantial change to the GWC. New applications to GWC – 9 must be done through a qualified woodland planner. This step has been taken to improve the quality of the submissions and reduce the amount of money that has been wasted. Previously up to 60% of the funding allocated at application level did not progress to completed schemes due to inappropriate mapping in applications.” He sees further changes coming in the future: “Other policy changes that are being actively suggested are reviewing the 5ha. maximum limit on applications that do not need Environmental Impact Assessment determination. In England and Scotland this is 50ha.”
Jon Travis agrees: “The Welsh Government committed to a process of co-design in SFaoL to explore the more practical implications of proposals with farmers and other land managers in a way not possible in a written consultation. This has recently launched (details at here), although we will need to revise these plans in light of covid-19. The Minister has committed to publishing a White Paper before the end of this Senedd Term, to pave the way for an Agriculture (Wales) Bill in the next Senedd term.”

Biodiversity and Commercial Forests

Referring to the latest plans around a national forest, Liz Lyon stated in June 2019 “There needs to be a balance between commercial and broadleaf forests. It’s an ambitious programme talking about the balance between woodlands around urban margins which compete for biodiversity as well as the much more ambitious programme for commercial woodland so that this could help with our targets as well. We’re waiting for feedback and it will obviously be the minister’s decision about how ambitious they want to be.” What do today’s plans around a national forest look like with regard to biodiversity and productive woodlands?
“The question neatly highlights the challenge we face in the industry.” says Anthony Geddes: “Why does this have to be an either or? The real question is why does this split continue to exist?” For Geddes this is mainly due to a lack of knowledge and appreciation of just what a well-managed woodland can achieve. Confor is working on a paper showing the biodiversity significance of woods in management for productive timber outcomes but according to Anthony more field research and subsequent analysis is required. He adds: “How can we be expected to debate and convince our critics if we have no firm evidence to back up our claims?”
With regard to the National Forest, Anthony Geddes states: “There is no agreed strategy yet beyond that detailed at the soft launch with environment minister Lesley Griffiths. The Welsh government is initially investing £5m into the scheme with an aim to link existing woodland with new forests, parkland and hedges. The scheme is set to help create new, important environments, meet carbon reduction targets, and combat flooding but also support tourism and the wellbeing of citizens across the country. As you can see all things are aspired to and now we need to understand how that translates into policy and program outputs.”
However, for the industry representative it remains unclear “whether timber is a proposed output of the national forest or whether other existing schemes such as Glastir are the preferred lead on that.”
Jon Travis is clear: “We want the National Forest to improve biodiversity and improve the condition of our ancient woodlands, and are providing funding to NRW to undertake a targeted programme this year to begin with this work.” With regard to commercial forestry he adds: “We would also expect there to be areas of productive forestry within the National Forest. The National Forest will play a role in our plans to increase woodland creation in Wales to 2,000 hectares in Wales. However it’s not the only thing that Welsh Government is doing to increase woodland creation in Wales, and will work alongside other policies like the Glastir Woodland Creation scheme.”

Environmental Impact Assessment & Land Use Transfer

WoodBUILD delegates raised concerns about this topic specifically saying that Wales has an incredibly complex legislative planning process and the Environmental Impact Assessment process was a massive barrier in terms of turning land over to forestry (commercial forestry in particular). Liz Lyon confirmed that the government was aware of the issue and had scheduled meetings with NRW to discuss the matter. How have things developed since June last year and what is the referenced longer-term project looking at specifically?
“There is still a need for a clear concise and open scoring method within NRW and Rural Payments Wales.” says Anthony Geddes, Confor Wales. “No applicant to the GWC system currently knows what criteria are used to measure the suitability of their plan.”

“We plan to discuss the scope of work we’re doing on this at a session in April 2020 with members of Natural Resources Wales’ Wales Land Management Forum.” confirms Dominic Driver.

For Anthony Geddes there are additional issues to overcome: “Decarbonisation, the productive potential of the timber and the potential improvement of a change of habitat are not factors in reviewing the suitability of a proposed planting scheme. Put simply, we continue to favour declining, failing and poor habitats without rationalising the opportunity for change. It may not always be appropriate and restoration may be the right answer but to exclude change is to condemn ourselves to look backwards not forwards.”
Jon Travis, Welsh Government describes the challenge of meeting complex ecosystem requirements whilst simplifying the process to do so: “NRW are responsible for ensuring that new woodland creation takes place in a way that maintains and enhances biodiverse and resilient ecosystems, in line with the requirements of the Environment Act. In some cases, an Environmental Statement for new woodland creation is required to ensure that the right species of tree is planted in the right location. These measures are important to ensure that woodland creation enhances our environment rather than damaging it. However, it is important that the process for meeting these requirements are as simple and timely as possible, and NRW and the Welsh Government are in regular discussions about how we can ensure this is the case.”
In Anthony Geddes view: “One objective that must be very much in our political and social focus is achieving the 2,000 ha per annum target. The Woodland for Wales Strategy has been around since 2001 but with far greater aspirations on tree planting. Of the original 100,000 ha target around 65,000 ha remain unplanted. Woodland creation must increase. It can happen in small steps but success in this area will build confidence with the growers and that will secure future plant supply.”
“We’re looking at how to further improve the way we regulate afforestation and the way this interacts with Government grants for afforestation.” says Dominic Driver. “The aim is to provide a more predictable process for applicants for afforestation permissions that is easier and quicker for them to follow, while maintaining confidence that we will protect valuable environmental features from inappropriate tree planting. Our work will include, among other things, looking at how Environmental Impact Assessment for afforestation works.”

An improved Woodland Creation application process

As part of the BIG Debate, Liz Lyon pledged to resolve issues around Glastir applications in the upcoming round in September 2019. What progress has been made in resolving these?
“Earlier this month, the Welsh Government launched a new round of Glastir Woodland Creation scheme, with a budget of £8 million.” states Jon Travis, Welsh Government. He sees a major improvement in the right direction: “This is a fourfold increase on funding from the previous round and a major step towards our commitment of hitting our planting target in Wales. We have also launched another round of Glastir Woodland Restoration with a budget of £2 million to help restock larch woodlands felled due to disease and restore ancient woodland sites. Previous rounds of Glastir Woodland Creation have been well subscribed and the selection process is ongoing.”
Anthony Geddes, Confor Wales is generally positive: “Progress has been slow but favourable. The significant message here is that there were over £20m worth of applications to Glastir 7&8. This is predominantly from farmers. At last we have the evidence to work with National Farmers Union (NFU) and Farmers’ Union of Wales (FUW) and show them that farmers, as the significant land owners in Wales want to explore the potential for forestry on their farm.”
Further improvements are planned for the future confirms Jon Travis: “Following discussions with the Confederation of Forest Industries (Confor), we have made some changes to the process for this new round. Looking to the future, we will utilise our experience from this round to actively consider how best to ensure the current interest in tree planting from landowners is realised.”
“The opportunity for change is huge.” adds Anthony Geddes, “There is a great opportunity to take NRW’s lessons learned from the last eight rounds of GWC and ensure that, whatever replaces it addresses these blockers without creating new problems.” He encourages land owners to engage in the process: “There are £10m going into the March 2020 Glastir Woodland Program – get applying and get it spent. The window closes at midnight 12 June 2020!”

Deforestation and the need for sustainable forest management techniques take their roots in earliest human development. Dainis Dauksta presents a brief history from axe and lightning to high-tech solutions bred in Silicon Valley.
Observation of natural traumatic events such as lightning strikes causing forest fires taught early hominids^[1] to use fire as their principal landscape management tool. Fire created nutrient-rich openings growing fresh grasses, attracting grazing animals for hunting. Thunder Gods in many cultures are linked to fertility and many hold a lightning rod. The Christian God stole the thunder from earlier Thunder Gods such as Baal of Palmyra, Zeus, Perkons, Taranis, Jupiter. Thunder Gods such as Baal of Palmyra are often depicted carrying an axe^[2].

Fire and axe – early tools of forest management

The handaxe is the oldest tool known to man and was in continuous use for 1 million years. It was used to fell trees (in a similar manner to beavers) and to shape wood^[3]. Anthropogenic^[4] use of fire to create openings in forests or large open savannas has been practised for up to 1.5 million years according to some authors^[5].

Historic causes of deforestation

Humans are programmed to manipulate and use forest landscapes. Societal and cultural development across the globe is directly linked to deforestation. Historical production of ceramics, glass, bronze, and iron all needed huge quantities of timber. Humans still burn nearly 2 billion m³ of wood every year, half of the annual harvest.
Construction of Ancient Rome caused deforestation through the Middle East, down to Northern Africa and west to Spain. Some academics argue that timber shortages caused early collapse of civilisations^[6]. The growth of Venice is directly linked to deforestation of the Terrafirma^[7].

The ‘Norman yoke’ and the emergence of forest law

The Normans’ delineation and reforestation of royal hunting zones in Britain contributed to the notion of the Norman yoke. Some of the first forest laws written to prevent assarting^[8] of forests can be interpreted as the oppression of Anglo Saxon masses by Norman occupiers. Some authors argue that the folk memory of the Norman yoke bleeds into present British perceptions of bounded forests owned by contemporary elites e.g. Forestry Commission and landed gentry.

The ‘Czarist yoke’ and the need for charcoal

Charcoal-smelted iron was still imported to Britain from Sweden and the Russian Urals after the Derby family’s coke-smelting method had been widely taken up across Shropshire and parts of Wales. Thus deforestation and serf ironworkers in Russia aided development of industrial Britain and reinforced the Czarist yoke. It is argued that the surviving coppice oak forests of Wales were informally protected as industrial resources driven by a lingering need for charcoal^[9].

European settlers and the making of the USA

European settlers deforested northern America to create agricultural land and build early settlements. San Francisco and Chicago were first built in timber from natural forests. Whilst redwood forests were amongst the principal resources for the development of industrial USA, the remaining redwood groves are now regarded as sacrosanct. The same is true of the remaining old growth Douglas fir forests of Washington and Oregon. John Muir made his reputation by creating the concept of ‘’national parks’’ where selected species became national treasures; native Americans were excluded from national parks. Historical/political views of forests are widely explored in S. Schama’s Landscape & Memory.

The British love of tea and deforestation across India

The importation and mass consumption of Indian-grown tea in Britain before the widespread adoption of steam propulsion depended on fast merchant ships called clippers which were built of teak. Unlike oak (celebrated in the Royal Navy anthem Heart of Oak), teak is unaffected by contact with iron. Very efficient fast smooth hulls could be built using teak planking fixed onto a light iron frame. However, unhindered British laissez-faire exploitation of Indian and Burmese teak forests led to major shortages of this strategic shipbuilding material.

Historic roots of sustainable forest management

The political reaction to teak deforestation led to botanist Dietrich Brandis being appointed in 1864 as first Inspector General of Forests in India. His scientific protocols for regular mensuration of teak plantation forests became the basis for modern sustainable forest management techniques.
Tea shipment from Indian tea plantations drove teak deforestation which then drove reforestation with managed teak plantations. Brandis’s teachings were taken up by the first head of the US Forest Service Gifford Pinchot who called him ‘’the chief figure of the forest movement in the world’’. British colonial management of deforestation in India and Burma became what is now called sustainable forest management (SFM)^[10].

Modern sustainable forest management, science and regulation

Enforcement of forest regulations depends on political stability and the logging of teak in Myanmar continues to be a political concern.
Scientific SFM has been transformed by technology. Palo Alto means tall stick and is the name given to the city founded by entrepreneur Leland Stanford in the area now called Silicon Valley. The referenced tall stick is a coastal redwood tree which still grows by the railroad track. This species is of special interest for rainy temperate zones because it is the most efficient temperate tree species for sequestrating and storing carbon in its biomass and the soil on which it grows^[11].

State of the art plant breeding techniques using CRISPR gene editing^[12] could transform this ancient resilient redwood species into a modern industrial plantation species. Many people have an affinity with redwood stands which are often called groves. This semantic association with the sacred grove can be used to promote new redwood plantation forests.
Silicon Valley – the breeding ground for future forestry?
Silicon Valley innovations are now being used to transform sustainable forest management globally. From valve through transistor to IC, PC and IT, Palo Alto innovation is at the heart of SFM techniques which encompass global positioning (GPS), light imaging detection and ranging (LIDAR), and photogrammetry.
Technologies embedded in consumer products such digital single lens reflex (DSLR) cameras and mobile phones can now record enough data to be used in constructing digital 3D models of individual trees or forest stands. With the high resolution satellite imagery available now it is possible to track legal and illegal forest interventions in real time. Mobile phones are used to capture images and location of pests and pathogens to inform forest services. This allows fast responses to potential biohazards or epidemics. Free mobile phone apps are now available for tree and sample plot mensuration^[13]. Sunnyvale based Trimble Inc. have integrated various Silicon Valley technologies and many forest-owning bodies use their products^[14].
Integration of these technologies enables foresters to build precise virtual models of forests and output specific data such as growth rates or yield class (YC). This data can then be used for carbon accounting in forest biomass. Forest plans and interventions can be managed, tracked and digitally certificated from forests to processors.
A brave new world awaits.
^[1] https://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/english/hominid
^[2] O.A. Zolotnikova The Storm-God with a Battle-Axe on the Early 1st Millennium BC Reliefs from Eastern Anatolia/ Northern Syria.
^[3] https://britishmuseum.withgoogle.com/object/olduvai-handaxe
^[4] https://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/english/anthropogenic
^[5] https://link.springer.com/article/10.4996/fireecology.0602043
^[6] R. Meiggs Trees and Timber in the Ancient Mediterranean World
^[7] K. R. Appuhn A Forest on the Sea
^[8] https://www.collinsdictionary.com/dictionary/english/assart
^[9] William Linnard Welsh Woods and Forests
^[10] Raymond L. Bryant; The Politics of Forest Management in Colonial Burma
^[11] https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0378112716302584
^[12] https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4YKFw2KZA5o
^[13] http://www.moti.ch/drupal/?q=en/node/31
^[14]  https://forestry.trimble.com/

We are currently in the process of finalising the outcomes of research exploring how housing associations might intervene in the forestry and timber supply chain to stimulate afforestation and the home-grown supply of construction timber.
This research, part funded by Natural Resources Wales, Woodknowledge Wales and a group of Welsh housing organisations, identified a real appetite for woodland creation among housing organisations who are looking to achieve a host of benefits including offsetting, skills development,  well-being impacts as well as acquiring construction timber for our future housing needs.
The research has already had significant impact with a number of Welsh housing associations and a Welsh local authority now working with us to explore woodland creation opportunities.
If you are interested in this research and the benefits of woodland creation please contact james.moxey@woodknowledgewales.co.uk.

NRW have become the latest organisation to join Woodknowledge Wales growing alliance. Our membership now consists of over 40 organisations from all sectors of the timber supply chain from housing clients at the demand end, down through the complete supply chain to land-use and forest management organisations.
NRW have a substantial influence on the Welsh softwood market. They are responsible for the management of 7% of Wales land area which includes 38% of the Welsh forest resource and over 100,000 hectares of conifer woodland. Each year NRW offers a maximum of 850,000 cubic meters over-bark standing timber available for sale.  In addition, NRW is the main forestry regulator and therefore plays a major role in the development of Wales forest industries.
Membership will enable us to work more closely with NRW to deliver our shared objectives in the forest sector, particularly with respect to the development of high-value construction uses for Welsh timber and in helping Wales respond pro-actively to the Climate Emergency.
“I’m really pleased we’ve joined Woodknowledge Wales.  We need their drive and creativity to help all of us to get the best out of Welsh woods and the Welsh timber industry to respond to the climate emergency and support environmental growth and our circular economy” said Dominic Driver, Head of Land Stewardship, Natural Resources Wales.